College teaching can be enhanced by a deeper understanding of student motivation. A highly motivated student can often outperform students with less enthusiasm and ambition. Reflection and consideration of student motivation allows teachers to develop and implement learning environments to maximize student learning outcomes. The objective of this research is to identify the major determinants of student motivation for learning in an academic environment, using an economic model of household production theory. The determinants of student motivation are identified by the construction of a mathematical model of human capital acquisition. The model provides useful implications concerning how college-level instructors could implement strategies that use student motivation to enhance student effort level and learning outcomes. Timely and useful strategies for teachers are derived from the economic model.

Ames, C., and J. Archer. 1988. “Achievement Goals in the Classroom: Students’ Learning Strategies and Motivation Processes.” Journal of Educational Psychology 80(3):260–267. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.260

Astin, A.W. 1978. Four Critical Years: Effects of College on Beliefs, Attitudes, and Knowledge. San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass.

Atkinson, J.W. 1957. “Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior.” Psychological Review 64(6, Part 1):359–372. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0043445

———. 1966. “Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior.” In J.W. Atkinson and J.T. Feather, eds. A Theory of Achievement Motivation. New York NY: Wiley, pp. 11–31.

Baber, H. 2021. “Modelling the Acceptance of e-Learning During the Pandemic of COVID-19-A Study of South Korea.” International Journal of Management Education 19(2):100503. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100503

Bandura, A. 1977. “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.” Psychological Review 84(2):191–215.

———A. 1989. “Human Agency in Social Cognition Theory.” American Psychologist 44(9): 1175–1184. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.44.9.1175

Barkley, A., and B.K. Coffey. 2018. “An Economic Model of Student Learning.” Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 50(4):1–23.

Barnett, L. 1950. The Universe and Dr. Einstein. Garden City NY: Dover Publications.

Becker, G.S. 1964. Human Capital. New York NY: Columbia University Press (for the National Bureau of Economics Research).

———. 1965. “A Theory of the Allocation of Time.” Economic Journal 75(299):493–517.

Ben-Porath, Y. 1967. “The Production of Human Capital and the Life Cycle of Earnings.” Journal of Political Economy 75(4, Part 1):352–365.

Bok, D. 2006. Our Underachieving Colleges. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.

Brickhouse, T.C., and N.D. Smith. 1994. Plato’s Socrates. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Carlson, S., and N. Laff. 2024. “It’s Not All About the Money: Why Meaning and Purpose Should be at the Center of the College Experience.” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 15.

Chen, W. 2024. “The Extended Grossman Human Capital Model with Endogenous Demand for Knowledge.” International Review of Economics and Finance 95:103464. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2024.103464

Collins, M. 1990. Marva Collins’ Way, 2nd ed. London: TarcherPerigee.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1990. Flow. New York NY: Harper and Row.

———. 2000. Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. Hoboken NJ: Jossey-Bass.

Deci, E.L., and R.M. Ryan. 2000. “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self Determination of Behavior.” Psychological Inquiry 11(4):227–268. https://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

———. 2013. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Springer Science and Business Media. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Dewey, J. 1913. Interest and Effort in Education. Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14633-000

Donnellan, E., S. Aslan, G.M. Fastrich, and K. Murayama. 2022. “How Are Curiosity and Interest Different? Naïve Bayes Classification of People’s Beliefs.” Educational Psychology Review 34(1):73–105. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09622-9

Dweck, C.S. 1986. “Motivational Processes Affecting Learning.” American Psychologist 41(10):1040. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040

Eccles, J.S., and A. Wigfield. 2020. “From Expectancy-Value Theory to Situated Expectancy-Value Theory: A Developmental, Social Cognitive, and Sociocultural Perspective on Motivation.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 61:101859. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Eccles, J.S., A. Wigfield, and U. Schiefele. 1998. “Motivation to Succeed.” In W. Damon and N. Eisenberg, ed. Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1017–1095.

Einstein, A. 1949. Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist, page 17. Ed. Paul Arthur Schlip. New York, NY: MJF Books.

Elliot, A.J., and J.W. Fryer. 2008. “The Goal Construct in Psychology.” In J.Y. Shah and W.L. Gardner, eds. Handbook of Motivation Science. New York NY: Guilford Press, pp. 235–250.

Elliot, A.J., and C.S. Hulleman. 2017. “Achievement Goals.” In A.J. Elliot, C. Dweck, and D.S. Yeager, eds. Handbook of Competence and Motivation: Theory and Application. New York NY: Guilford Press, pp. 43–60.

Feraco, T., D. Resnati, D. Fregonese, A. Spoto, and C. Meneghetti. 2023. “An Integrated Model of School Students’ Academic Achievement and Life Satisfaction. Linking Soft Skills, Extracurricular Activities, Self-Regulated Learning, Motivation, and Emotions.” European Journal of Psychology of Education 38(1):109–130.

Franklin, B. 1746. Poor Richard’s Almanack. Philadelphia PA.

Gerjuoy, Herbert. 1970. In Alvin Toffler’s Future Shock, page 414. 1970.  New York NY: Bantom.

Graham, S. 2020. “An Attributional Theory of Motivation.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 61:101861. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.cedpsych.2020.101861

Grossman, M. 1972. “On the Concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health.” Journal of Political Economy 80(2):223–255.

———. 1999. “The Human Capital Model of the Demand for Health.” NBER Working Paper 7078. Cambridge MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

———. 2003. “Household Production and Health.” Review of Economics of the Household 1:331–342.

Grund, A., and S. Fries. 2012. “Motivational Interference in Study–Leisure Conflicts: How Opportunity Costs Affect the Self-Regulation of University Students.” Educational Psychology 32(5):589–612. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.674005

Hattie, J., F.A. Hodis, and S.H.K. Kang. 2020. “Theories of Motivation: Integration and Ways Forward.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 61:101865. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101865

Heckhausen, J., and H. Heckhausen. 2018. “Motivation and Action: Introduction and Overview.” In J. Heckhausen and H. Heckhausen, eds. Motivation and Action. New York NY: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–14. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1

Henry, B. n.d. “Quotes.” BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/brad_henry_167806

Huffman, W.E. 2011. “Household Production Theory and Models.” In J.L. Lusk, J. Roosen, and J.F. Shogren, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the Economics of Food Consumption and Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 34–74.

Hutchins, R.M. 1935. “What Is a University?” Speech delivered by the president of the University of Chicago, April 18. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/chicago/9780226837819-006/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOoqQf3R-ndlPYV1sQZdCw5j5ymDiB1HBmhq_YtO1S1QfMJq1eoyx

Jansen, T., J. Meyer, A. Wigfield, and J. Möller. 2022. “Which Student and Instructional Variables Are Most Strongly Related to Academic Motivation in K-12 Education? A Systematic Review of Metanalyses.” Psychological Bu lletin 148(1–2):1–26. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/BUL0000354

Kant, I. n.d. “Quotes.” BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/immanuel_kant_163227

Koenka, A.C. 2020. “Academic Motivation Theories Revisited: An Interactive Dialog between Motivation Scholars on Recent Contributions, Underexplored Issues, and Future Directions.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 61:101831. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101831

Lancaster, K.J. 1966. “A New Approach to Consumer Theory.” Journal of Political Economy 74(2):132–157.

Levi, E. 1898. The Great Secret, or, Occultism Unveiled. Charlottesville VA: The University of Virginia.

Levine, M. 2005. Ready or Not, Here Life Comes. New York NY: Simon and Schuster.

Lewin, K. 1951. Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers. New York NY: Harpers.

Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., and E.A. Patall. 2016. “Motivation.” In L. Corno and E.M. Anderman, eds. Handbook of Educational Psychology, 3rd ed. Milton Park UK: Routledge, pp. 91–103.

Locke, E.A., G.P. Latham, and M. Erez. 1988. “The Determinants of Goal Commitment.” Academy of Management Review 13(1):23–39. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/258352

Lovett, M.C., M.W. Bridges, M. DiPietro, S.A. Ambrose, and M.K. Norman. 2023. How Learning Works: Eight Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. Indianapolis IN: Jossey-Bass.

Mega, C., L. Ronconi, and R. De Beni. 2014. “What Makes a Good Student? How Emotions, Self-Regulated Learning, and Motivation Contribute to Academic Achievement.” Journal of Educational Psychology 106(1):121.

Michael, R.T. 1973. “Education and the Derived Demand for Children.” Journal of Political Economy 81(March–April):S128–S164.

Michael, R.T., and G.S. Becker. 1973. “On the New Theory of Consumer Behavior.” Swedish Journal of Economics 75(2, Part 2):378–396.

Mincer, J. 1963. “Market Prices, Opportunity Costs, and Income Effects.” In C. Christ, ed. Measurement in Economics. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 66–82.

———. 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York NY: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Nussbaum, M. 2016. Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.

Ouliaris, S. 2011. “What are Economic Models.” Finance and Development 48(2):46–47.

Overmier, J.B., and J.A. Lawry. 1979. “Conditioning and the Mediation of Behavior.” In G.H. Bower, ed. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Vol. 13. New York NY: Academic Press, pp. 1–55.

Pintrich, P.R., and B. Schrauben. 1992. “Students’ Motivational Beliefs and Their Cognitive Engagement in Classroom Academic Tasks.” In D. Schunk and J. Meece, eds. Student Perceptions in the Classroom: Causes and Consequences. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 149–183.

Reid, M.D. 1934. The Economics of Household Production. New York NY: J. Wiley & Sons.

Rosen, S. 1992. “Distinguished Fellow: Mincering Labor Economics.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 6(2):157–170.

Rotter, J.B., J.E. Chance, and E.J. Phares. 1972. Applications of a Social Learning Theory of Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Schnettler, T., J. Bobe, A. Scheunemann, S. Fries, and C. Grunschel. 2020. “Is It Still Worth It? Applying Expectancy-Value Theory to Investigate the Intraindividual Motivational Process of Forming Intentions to Drop Out from University.” Motivation and Emotion 44:491–507. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-020-09822-w

Schunk, D.H. 2000. “Coming to Terms with Motivation Constructs.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 25(1):116–119. https://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1018

Schunk, D.H., and M.K. DiBenedetto. 2021. “Self-Efficacy and Human Motivation.” In A.J. Elliot, ed. Advances in Motivation Science. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Academic Press, pp. 153–179.

Schunk, D.H., J.L. Meece, and P.R. Pintrich. 2014. Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 4th ed. London, England: Pearson.

Seifert, T. 2004. “Understanding Student Motivation.” Educational Research 46(2):137–149. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0013188042000222421

Strada Education Foundation. 2018. “Why Higher Ed? Top Reasons U.S. Consumers Choose Their Educational Pathways.” Washington DC: Gallup, Inc. Retrieved from https://www.strada.org/reports/why-higher-ed

Theobald, M. 2024. “Study Longer or Study Effectively? Better Study Strategies Can Compensate for Less Study Time and Predict Goal Achievement and Lower Negative Affect.” British Journal of Educational Psychology 95:405–420. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12725

Thoreau, H.D. n.d.. “Quotes.” BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/henry_david_thoreau_379350

Toffler, A. 2018. In: Nina Martire, “The World is Shifting: Converge and Understand How it Impacts You.” September 26, 2018. https://tofflerassociates.com/vanishing-point/world-is-shifting-converge-and-understand-how-it-impacts-you/

Tolman, E.C. 1932. Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. Rushden UK: Century/Random House UK.

Tuckman, B.W. 1999. “A Tripartite Model of Motivation for Achievement: Attitude/Drive/Strategy.” Paper presented in the Symposium: Motivational Factors Affecting Student Achievement-Current Perspectives, annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Boston MA, August.

Urhahne, D., and L. Wijnia. 2023. “Theories of Motivation in Education: An Integrative Framework.” Educational Psychology Review 35(2):45.

Ward, W.A. n.d. “Quotes.” Quotes.net. Retrieved from https://www.quotes.net/quote/6655

Wigfield, A., and J.S. Eccles. 1992. “The Development of Achievement Task Values: A Theoretical Analysis.” Developmental Review 12(3):265–310.

Winston, G.C. 1999. “Subsidies, Hierarchy, and Peers: The Awkward Economics of Higher Education.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 13(1):13–36.